Problem Solving:
Definition:-
The process of working through details of a problem (a matter involving dilemma/difficulty) to reach potential solution.It may include mathematical or systematic operations can a gauge of an individual's critical thinking skills.
Problem Solving and Decision Making:
Problem solving determine the cause of the problem while decision making is an alternative action that must be developed and evaluated against all of the objectives.Problem solving involves different techniques of thinking in identifying potential solutions while decision making involves various decision making techniques tools.
Problem Solving Techniques:
Problem Solving Techniques:
- Abstraction
Solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system. - Analogy
Using a solution that solves analoguos (relates subject to another matter) problem - Brainstorming
Suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas, combining and developing them until an optimum is found - Divide and conquer
Breaking down a large,complex problem into a smaller, solvable problems - Hypothesis testing
Assuming possible explaination to the problem and trying to prove (or in some other context, to dissaprove) the assumption - Lateral thinking
Approaching solutions indirectly and creatively - Means-ends analysis
Choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal - Method of focal objects
Synthesing seemingly non matching characteristics of different object into something new - Morphological analysis
Assessing the output and the interactions of an entire system - Proof
Try to prove that the problem cannot be solved.The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it - Reduction
Transforming the problem into another problem for which the solutions exist - Research
Employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problem - Root cause analysis
Eliminating the cause of the problem - Trial and error
Testing possible solutions until the right one is found
DAID Model and Brainstorming Technique
DAID stands for Define, Analyze, Identify, and Decide.
- Define - the problem
- Analyze - the problem
- Identify - the possible solutions
- Decide - most appropriate alternative.
My parent called me last night. My mum told me that she was thinking to bring me and siblings vacation during my semester break . Mum said that she was thinking to bring us to Pulau Gemia, Kuala Terengganu. She will be going to deposit the down payment for the tour fees on this Friday. The date that we will be going is in middle of February. It is between my holiday school end and first week of new semester. My mum says that we will be going there for a week.But, I only can stay in Terengganu for five days. It is because I have a club event on the second day of the first week of the new semester. So, I do not know how to solve the problem.
Then, I think I should use the four-stage model to solve this problem. They are DAID. D is stand for define the problem. A is analyse the problem. I is Identify the possible solutions and D stand for deciding on the most appropriate alternative.First, my problem is, I don't know whether I should be going back early by myself or with my family.Second, what will happen if Im absent from attending the club event? How do I get back early? Should I go for holiday with my family? If Im coming back early, I could attend the club event but on the other hand if Im not going to spend the holiday with my family then they will be disappointed.I hope join my parent. Maybe I can ask my mum to decide for the five days holiday. Perhaps I can come back early.In a nutshell, I decide to tell my mum that I will be going back to the campus two days early so that I can attend the club event. So by applying the DAID technique, I manage to come with one answer that could satisfy both party and resolve the dilemma that Im facing.
When it we see something in through the media publication, have this thoughts come across your mind?
- Is what you see really what you get?
- Do you really want it?
A critical thinker is always aware of the presence and power of suggestion in mass media.
Suggestion means ideas or images in such ways to reveal certain ideas and to conceal others.Little did we know that suggestion played quite important role in everyday of our daily life.We use the power of suggestion to create impression in our personal lives, impressions that help us to look or seem better in some ways we actually are.Here are a few situational example on how the power of suggestion plays a major role in the professional world:-
Situation 1:
A car sales person approach a yuppie telling him to sit inside a car and makes himself feel comfortable, hoping that the suggestions of ownership and the smell or the feeling of a new car will induce him to buy it.
Situation 2:
A real estate agent show a house to a newly wed couple during the morning with all the windows opened and she welcome them with a freshly baked home made cookies right from the oven, filling the house with sweet smells of pastries and cookies. Making the house seem warm and inviting. A perfect place to build a family.
So how does suggestion play it's parts in media publication. The word media comes from the Latin word, medium which means "in the middle".We know about advertisements in print or electronic media but that's merely scratch the surface of it. TV producers, directors, editors, and advertisers have always used the power of suggestion in their working field. So we are going to take a sneak peek into the world of media suggestion.
1)News Media
"the relationship between news, entertainment, and advertising has become so sophisticated and seamless that it is difficult to tell them apart (Basham, 2008)"
New media acts as a middle agent; a bridge between us and the world of events occurring around us. There are few ways on how the media piqued our interest and keep us entertained. News media used the viewer's unwillingness to think rigorously to their advantages and deliver the news in non contextual but entertaining news
Here are a few guidelines to helps us understands the subtle but consciously detectable use of suggestion.
For news program and talk shows, be aware of:
- The selection of issues -
One method used to attract and entertain viewers is called sensationalism; more interesting stories are chosen over the less exciting but more newsworthy ones. - The time factor - two elements of time that can influence viewer are:
1)Placement of the stories - stories with early coverage on newscast will give more urgent impact on it
2)Quantity of time for the coverage - feature guest who discuss different sides of the issues will make the audience feel better acquainted and more likely to be influenced by the guest given more time - Use of language - The reporter's language can affect audience perception of an issue.
Example: For a news report of a terrorist bombing,compare how the following choice of word affect the viewer's perception.
"Group X takes credit for the bombing"
"Group X held responsibility for the bombing"
The use of language can affect audience perception of an issue.
Example:In a talk show discussing the use of stem cell to produce synthetic cell by scientist,compare hot the following word affect the viewer's perception.
"Should scientist be allowed to create new cells from stem cells?"
"Should scientist be allowed to construct new cells from stem cells?" - Nonverbal element of clothing -
The way someone is dressed is an important factor in creating a suggestion of his/her character and appropriateness for a given role. - Camera angle and distance -
1)Close up control our emotions by adding element of intimacy and may lead us to identify more readily with the person's viewpoint
2)Shooting angle from below gives the speaker more authority, as the viewer is "looking up" to the speaker.This technique command attention and respect for the speaker/spokesperson.
2)Print Media
As a critical thinkers,we can be responsible readers when we consider the following:-
- Use of the headline -
Sensational headline of 'tabloid' newspaper are not credible.Headlines are important because many readers are scanners - that means that they skim the newspaper, reading the headlines and then going back to the only articles that interest them. - Fairness in reporting issue -
Editors decide which article are important enough to cover and on what page they appear. - Photo composition - "A picture is worth a thousand words"
Angle of shot:- wider angle can give a sense of generality while narrow angle could focus on something hence enhancing their importance
Timeline of a photo - outdated photo can change people perception towards something
When we see something we should stop and consider what is the viewpoint or perspective that it tries to suggest.
Critically evaluating the news message:-
- Define what is the message that it tries to to sent. What specific, or factual information that it tries to deliver.
- Separate the information from how the information is being delivered.
- Define the larger context from which the information has been selected.
- Try to find the methods they are trying to use to attract your attention.
- Try to find who gains benefit from the story.
3)Advertising
What ads do:-
a)To inform
b)To motivate.
Common advertising ploy:-
-Humor
-Catchy slogan
-Emotive language
-Anxiety ads
-Feel good ads
-Weasel words
-Fine print disclaimer
-Sex appeal
-Celebrity endorsement
Subliminal Persuasion
Subliminal persuasion is the act of making the target think and act against their will by messages(suggestion) geared to affect us in ways our conscious mind cant detect.Diestler, identified subliminal persuasion as information that is extraneous to the main messages given. This information can be perceived if we are made aware of it.But this messages requires training.
Subliminal persuasion in advertisement - copywriters and graphic designers use subtle phrasing and combination of colors and formats to attract us to a certain product.
Subliminal persuasion in political campaign -
Example 1: As soon as the leader of People's Party(PP) appears on the screen TV, station logo replaced with the inscription Mas PP (Most People's Party), while in the background the words "pension", "employment", "health", "progress", "europe", "education" etc.
Example 2: Portraying Barack Obama as a kind of saint savior in most his pictures
Caution with subliminal persuasion.
As a critical thinker, we can:-
a)Understand how subliminal persuasion operates
b)Being aware of our attention span when we are viewing to or listening to an advertisement.
c)Thinking twice before buying a certain product by making sure that you are buying it because it is the best
brand for you and not because of the brand name that you recognize.
d)As a voter, you need to be clear the reasons you are supporting it a particular candidate or a party. Dont get bought into a slogan or someone's claim without thinking. Do you clearly understand the issues and the various conclusion about the issue. yellow
Media Literacy
Skillful application of literacy skills to media and technology messages. As communication technologies transform society, they impact our understanding of ourselves, our communities, and our diverse cultures, making media literacy an essential life skill for the 21st century - Alliance for Media Literate America
Being literate in a media age requires critical thinking skills which empower us as we make decisionsm whether in the classroom, the living room,the workplace, the board room or the voting booth.
Thinking critically about the internet:
Before you search the internet, ask yourself what you are looking for. Is it:
Subliminal persuasion is the act of making the target think and act against their will by messages(suggestion) geared to affect us in ways our conscious mind cant detect.Diestler, identified subliminal persuasion as information that is extraneous to the main messages given. This information can be perceived if we are made aware of it.But this messages requires training.
Subliminal persuasion in advertisement - copywriters and graphic designers use subtle phrasing and combination of colors and formats to attract us to a certain product.
Subliminal persuasion in political campaign -
Example 1: As soon as the leader of People's Party(PP) appears on the screen TV, station logo replaced with the inscription Mas PP (Most People's Party), while in the background the words "pension", "employment", "health", "progress", "europe", "education" etc.
Example 2: Portraying Barack Obama as a kind of saint savior in most his pictures
Caution with subliminal persuasion.
As a critical thinker, we can:-
a)Understand how subliminal persuasion operates
b)Being aware of our attention span when we are viewing to or listening to an advertisement.
c)Thinking twice before buying a certain product by making sure that you are buying it because it is the best
brand for you and not because of the brand name that you recognize.
d)As a voter, you need to be clear the reasons you are supporting it a particular candidate or a party. Dont get bought into a slogan or someone's claim without thinking. Do you clearly understand the issues and the various conclusion about the issue. yellow
Media Literacy
Skillful application of literacy skills to media and technology messages. As communication technologies transform society, they impact our understanding of ourselves, our communities, and our diverse cultures, making media literacy an essential life skill for the 21st century - Alliance for Media Literate America
Being literate in a media age requires critical thinking skills which empower us as we make decisionsm whether in the classroom, the living room,the workplace, the board room or the voting booth.
Thinking critically about the internet:
Before you search the internet, ask yourself what you are looking for. Is it:
- Facts
- Opinions
- Arguments
- Narratives
- Eyewitness reports
- Statistic
Do you want a new ideas or something to support a position you already hold? Here is a checklist for evaluating the quality of internet resources:
- Authority
- Accuracy
- Objectivity
- Currentness.
Fallacy is another type of bad arguments. When someone presents a fallacious arguments, the arguments should be rejected as it is so bad and it is typically unrepairable (Eipstein, 2002)
CAUSAL FALLACIES
Because causality plays an dominant role in the way we make sense of the world, it is not surprising that we make many mistakes and errors in judgement trying to determine causal relationships.
Fallacy of False Cause or Non Sequitur :- incorrectly assumes one thing is the cause of the other. Non sequitur is Latin for "it does not follow"
Example:
Argument- I hear the rain falling outside my window; therefore the sun is not shining.
Problem- The conclusion is false because the sun might be shining while it is raining.
Post Hoc Fallacies or Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc ;- believing that temporal succession implies a causal relation.
Example:
Argument- It rained just before the car broke down. The rain caused the car to broke down
Problem- There maybe no connection between the two events. Two events happening one after another is not an indication of causation.
Slippery Slope Fallacies;- the pattern of this arguments is:
"We cannot allow A, because A will lead to B, and be will lead to C, and we sure do not want C!"
The argument usually implies negative effects are presented as the automatic consequences of a course of an action or belief. We commit slippery slope fallacy when we claim without sufficient evidence that a seemingly harmless action, if taken will lead to a disastrous outcome.
FALLACIES OF GENERALIZATION
A generalization is a statement that asserts that all or most things of a certain kind have a certain quality or characteristic. A generalization argument can become bad if the generalization made do not follow good generalization criteria. A good generalization argument should comprise elements such as the sample must be big, the sample is representative the population, the sample is well studied and so forth.
Fallacy of Accidents or Sweeping Generalization;- A generalization that disregards exceptions
Examples:
Argument- Cutting people is a crime. Surgeon cut people, therefore, surgeons commit a crime.
Problem- Cutting people is not a crime in certain situations.
Argument- It is illegal for a stranger to enter someone's home uninvited. Firefighters enter people's home uninvited, therefore firefighters are breaking the law.
Problem- The exception does not break nor define the rule (Since the home owner doesnt invite the firefighters, but we would want them to enter uninvited, this exception does not actually break the law)
Hasty Generalization;- argues from a special case to a general rule. Inductive logic demands a data set large enough and qualitative enough to warrant a generalization. Hasty generalization can also be called reverse accident, destroying the exception.
Two hasty generalizations for the price of one! "He's a black rapper. He's probably done time in jail." and "She's a white homemaker's diva. She probably hasn't any idea what a prison is." What you CAN deduce from the picture is "Snoop Dogg rarely--if ever--uses a wisk," and "Holy crap--these two have met?!"
Example:
Argument- Every person I've met has ten fingers, therefore all people have ten fingers.
Problem- Those who have been met are not representative subset of the entire set.
FALSE DILEMMA
This fallacy is committed when the arguer poses a fake either/or choice.
Example:
Argument- "Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorist. Either you stand by civilization and good(us), or with barbarism and evil(them).Choose.And to those nations that choose wrongly,beware..." - US President George Bush's message to the world, first delivered on September 20,2001
Problem- The arguer claim there are only two relevant choices, when in fact there are more than two.
FALLACY (IRRELEVANT CONCLUSION)
This fallacy is done when the arguer diverts the attentions away from a fact in dispute rather than addressing it directly.
Ad Hominem Fallacy;- comes from Latin words that means "at the man". It is purely personal considerations meaning the arguer purposely attack a person in attempt to get the audience to believe in his/her PREMISES. "Ad Hominem" attack usually arise from a person having an irrational attachment to their beliefs.
Ad Hominem Fallacy can be divided into 3 categories:
a)Ad Hominem (Abusive) - Attack the other person's "character" a "bad person"
b)Ad Hominem (Circumstancial) - Attacks the other person's "credibility" someone who can't be "trusted"
c)Ad Hominem (Tu Quo Que) - Making an argument that point out someone has the same fault he is accusing the speaker (or writer)of having.
Ad Hominem Abusive
Example- George argues that the taxes should be raised. But he is a communist, so taxes shouldn't be raised.
Problem- George's political affiliation doesn't pertain the truth of his claim.
Ad Hominem Circumstancial
Example:
Lizzie: The promoter of that slimming center said that nano technology services that are available in the center is the best way to trim down all fats
Marie: Of course she said that way; she defend her interest to get customers for her slimming center.
Ad Hominem Tu Quo Que
Example: You asked me to study hard but I hardly see you do your revision this trimester.
Ad Populum Fallacy;- Fallacy that appeal to popular sentiment (appeal to the majority/loyalty). People who tends to use Ad Populum Fallacy tends to persuade someone of something by manipulating emotions. By understanding or by pressing the right button (the right emotions) the persuader hopes the listener's will incline to agree with the argument.
There are a few of Ad Populum categories:
- Ad Populum appeal to force/fear = Scare tactic
- Ad Populum appeal to pity
- Ad Populum appeal to shame
- Ad Populum appeal to vanity = Apple polishing
- Ad Populum appeal to authority
- Ad Populum appeal to ignorance
- Ad Populum appeal to spite = "Two wrongs make a right"
The general structure of ad populum fallacy is:
"You should do or believe _____ or else _____"
* The second part of the blank space is the type of emotion that the arguer want to stir the listener
THE BANDWAGON FALLACY
- Ad Populum appeal to common belief
- Ad Populum appeal to common practice
- Ad Populum appeal to tradition
These three are known as the BANDWAGON FALLACY because the arguer is encouraging the listener to 'jump the bandwagon' or to 'belong to a peer group' or to 'fit in'. It is a fallacy in which a threat of rejection by one's peer (or peer pressure) is substituted for evidence in an "argument"
In order to fit in a group, someone needs to:-
a) Think like the others (Ad Populum appeal to common beliefs)
b) Do what others do (Ad Populum appeal to common practice)
c) Follows customs or traditions ( Ad Populum appeal to tradition)
The basic pattern of the argument is:
1) Everybody(or a selected group of people) believes or does X
2) therefore, you should believes or do X, too.
PETITIO PRINCIPII (AVOIDING ARGUMENT)
Sometimes, people try to persuade by means of avoiding the actual discussions, When it happens, sometimes, the premises are missing or the actual issues are side tracked by irrelevant issues.
Begging the question (Circular Argument);- demonstrates a conclusion by means of premises that assumes the conclusion.
The form of this argument is;
"S is true, because S is true."
Example:
Argument- Aspirin users are at risk of becoming dependent on the drug, because aspirin is an addictive substance
Problem- The premise and the conclusion have the same meaning. if one have already accepted the premise, there is no need to reason to the conclusion. Obviously the premise is not logically irrelevant to the conclusion, for if the premise is true then the conclusion itself must also be true. It is however, logically irrelevant in proving the conclusion.
Red Herring Fallacy;- "an arguer tries to sidetrack his audience by raising an irrelevant issue and then claims the original issues has been settled by the irrelevant diversion - Downe, 2005"
Red Herring fallacy follows this form:
Topic A is under discussion
Topic B is introduce under the guise of being relevant to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A)
Topic A is abandoned
This sort of "reasoning" is fallacious because merely changing the topic of discussion hardly counts as an argument against a claim.
ANALOGY
To give an analogy is to claim that two distinct things are alike or similar in some respect. Here are two examples :
- Capitalists are like vampires.
- Like the Earth, Mars has an atmosphere containing oxygen.
The analogies above are not arguments. But analogies are often used in arguments. To argue by analogy is to argue that because two things are similar, what is true of one is also true of the other. Such arguments are called "analogical arguments" or "arguments by analogy". By re writing the analogy above, we could change it into an analogical arguments.
- Capitalist will suck off every money from you just like the vampire.
- There might be life on Mars because it has an atmosphere that contains oxygen just like the Earth.
Analogical arguments rely on analogies, and the first point to note about analogies is that any two objects are bound to be similar in some ways and not others. A sparrow is very different from a car, but they are still similar in that they can both move. A washing machine is very different from a society, but they both contain parts and produce waste. So in general, when we make use of analogical arguments, it is important to make clear in what ways are two things supposed to be similar. We can then proceed to determine whether the two things are indeed similar in the relevant respects, and whether those aspects of similarity supports the conclusion.
ANALOGICAL ARGUMENTS AND INDUCTION
It is sometimes suggested that all analogical arguments make use of inductive reasoning but it is not entirely correct.Here is some examples on the make use of inductive reasoning in analogical argument :
(Premise 1) B is like A in many ways.
(Premise 2) A have the property of G
(Conclusion) So, B has the property of G
(Premise 1) Y is a sunflower.
(Premise 2) Every sunflower have sunflower seeds.
(Conclusion) Y have sunflower seeds.
What the examples try to show is that:
- Some good analogical arguments are deductively valid.
- Sometimes we can argue for a conclusion more directly without making use of analogies. This might reveal more clearly the reasons that support the conclusion.
Of course, analogical arguments can also be employed in inductive reasoning. Example :
This novel is supposed to have a similar plot like the other one we have read, so probably it is also very boring.
This argument is of course not deductively valid. Just because the plot of novel X is similar to the plot of a boring novel Y, it does not follow logically that X is also boring. Perhaps novel X is a good read despite an unimpressive plot because its pace is a lot faster and the story telling is more gripping and graphic. But if no such information is available, and all we know about novel X is that its plot is like the plot of Y, which is not very interesting, then we would be justified in thinking that it is more likely for X to be boring than to be interesting
There are a few ways on how to evaluate the strength of an analogical arguments. Here are some guidelines for deciding whether to accept someone's argument by analogy.
- Examine whether the premises are true
- Ask yourself whether the similarities are relevant
- Consider the number of relevant similarities
- Consider how relevant are the dissimilarities
CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP AND CAUSAL ARGUMENTS.
Causal arguments, like analogical arguments and generalizations, will always be invalid, that is, the truth of the premises do not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Rather, causal arguments have varying degrees of strength, that is, the truth of their premises provides a conclusion that is true with some degree of probability or likelihood.
CAUSAL CLAIM AND CAUSAL ARGUMENTS
A causal claim is one that asserts that there is a relationship between two events such that one is the effect of the other. A causal claim takes the form of "x causes y," with x referring to the cause and y referring to the effect. A causal argument provides the premises to support a conclusion about a cause and effect relationship.It is essential to a causal claim is a relationship between two events such that one is the effect of the other.
EVALUATING CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP
There are three ways in evaluating causal relationship.The mistakes that we tend to do when evaluating cause and effect are:-
- Overlooking a common cause
I notice when I get a sore throat, it will be not long before I get a runny nose. I conclude that sore throat are the cause of runny nose.
This actually overlook the common cause that the two things (runny nose and sore throat) are cause by virus, not one by the other
- Tracing the cause backwards
Bad eyesight is caused by watching TV too closely
We have not clearly established which one of the two things really comes first. We simply assume we know which one comes first but in reality, it maybe the other way around.
- Looking too hard for a cause
Example:
Wearing my favorite T-shirt will make my team wins the game.
As a result we might continue to wear the shirt for good luck. It is easy to see how this kind of mistakes can lead to superstitious belief.
- Correlations
Example:
Since you start seeing that girl you grades have gone down. She's obviously been distracting you from your work, so you mustn't see her anymore.
Correlations is not a cause.
"Rooster syndrome" -- Believing that the rooster's crowing causes the sun to rise.
In critical thinking, ARGUMENTS can divided into TWO types:
- Deductive arguments
- Inductive arguments
Okay, now we recap key definations
(1) Argument : Statement a claim (called the conclusion) is defended with reasons (premises).
(2) Deductive Argument : Conclusion is claimed to follow necessarily from the premises.
(3) Inductive Argument : Conclusion is claimed to follow probably from the premises.
The premise provides logically conclusive grounds for the truth of the conclusion.
The truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
It is impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true!
Valid deductive, good argument
If a deductively valid argument has all true premises, we say that it is deductively sound
(good).
Example:
(1) All women who are alive breathe
Aznur is a woman and she is alive
Therefore, Aznur breathes
(2) All humans are mortal.
Aznur is a human.
Therefore, Aznur is mortal.
- Jack is a boy.
- All boy have a "y" chromosome.
Hence, Jack have "y" chromosome.
There is NO way for you to say the conclusion is false given the premises are all plausible (believable).
* Remember : Good arguments must be valid and have all true premises .
Valid deductive, bad argument
If a deductively valid argument has one or more false premises, or both, we say that it is deductively unsound (bad).
Example:
All dogs bark
Ralph barks
Therefore, Ralph is a dog
Invalid deductive argument
Any deductive argument in which the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises is called invalid. It is logically possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion is false, then the argument is invalid.
Inductive argument
In inductive argument, we can measure the strength / degree of the argument. The inductive strength of the argument is a measure of the degree of support that is provided.
A strong inductive argument is one in which the conclusion follows probably from the premises;
If it is easy for the conclusion to be false when the premises are true, then we say that it is “very weak”. Arguments that are not valid can range from being “very strong” to being “very weak”.
THINGS TO REMEMBER ABOUT VALIDITY
Valid does not mean true. Valid means what the argument is well reasoned, that the pattern of reasoning is a logically reliable patterns reasoning, that the conclusion follow necessarily from the premises.
Thus, the basic deductive validity is not whether the premises are actually true, instead the question is this: If the argument's premises were true, would conclusion also have to be true?
IF YES VALID
IF NO INVALID
A good argument is when we can make the target audience to agree with our conclusion and vice versa to determine if it is a bad argument. One of the criteria that makes a good argument are the conclusion and the premises of the argument are not vague.
Vague Sentences
Vague language is words and phrases that aren't very exact or precise. You might want to use this phrases if you are not sure of all the details of something, to speak informally in a friendly way, or perhaps just to save time in a conversation.The following notes are about vagueness in spoken English. Vagueness in written English is quite different.
i.e:-
- Vague Nouns:- bit, things, stuff.
(There are a few things I'm not happy about. You did a lot of stuff that makes me
unhappy.) - Quantifiers:- one or two, a few, a couple of, a lot, a plenty of, loads of.
(We have one or two things to discuss.) - Vagueness In Numbers:- around, about.
(It must be around three o' clock now.) - -ish(to give a vague vindication of time):-
(I usually get home about six-ish) - sort of,kind of(phrases used in describing things)
(You are kind of getting on my nerves)
Vagueness can be cause by the uncertainty about the standards that are being use as a basis comparison.
e.g:- He is tall (There are no comparison about the heights that proves the subject is tall)
e.g:- He is tall (There are no comparison about the heights that proves the subject is tall)
Confusion over the context is also one of the reason of vagueness can happened in a communication.
e.g:- Abortion is Immoral (There are no perspective in this statement.)
Last but not least regional/cultural cause of vagueness.
e.g:- Can send me back anot ah? Pliz?
Over Generality
Mom: Where did you put the jacket that you are going to bring tomorrow?
Kid: Chair
Mom: Which shoes are you going to wear?
Kid: That one.
Mom: Where did you put your tumbler?
Kid: Table
Mom: What time do you want me to wake you up tomorrow?
Kid: Anytime.
Mom: Can you please reply my questions seriously?
Kid: Okay.
The conversation above is a good example of over generality usage in a conversation.Over generality means that the words that we are using is very clear and understandable but, statement refers to an idea that is not sufficiently specific to allow us to determine the important ideas that are being shared.
Ambiguity
Ambiguity is a series of a statement that is worded in such way to make the listener/reader lose track of "which one" you are talking about.
An example of an ambiguous sentence: "The lady it the man with an umbrella". This can be interpret into two ways.
- Is the lady used an umbrella to hit that man ?
- Or is the lady hitting a man who is carrying an umbrella?
Euphemism and Dysphemism
Above situation explain that Santa Claus is trying to politely firing his elves. When we choose a word that makes some, concept, or object sounds better than it is, we called that word an euphemism.There are many common euphemism for many situations, however when a euphemism is harsh or insensitive and replaces a neutral or positive phrases, it is considered the opposite of euphemism which is known as a dysphemism.
Some common euphemism include the bathroom are restroom, washroom, where can I wash my hands, lieu wash closet(w/c) and the head. Pregnancy euphemism include in the family way, the rabbit died and bun in the oven. Being poor can be referred to financially challenged. Having an argument can be referred to as having words with someone. Being fired can be referred to as downsized,made redundant or let go. The blind are visually impaired, enhanced interrogation for being tortured, friendly fire for killing your own,stretching the truth for lying and last but not least put down to sleep for euthanasia.
Objectivity Vs Subjectivity
Objective truths are capable of proof: for instance, I look at bowling ball and a baseball and I say, the bowling ball is larger and heavier than the baseball. I prove the statement by measuring the two and weighing them - Objective truth. While subjective observations are those that reflect an accurate statement of a person state of mind but cannot be proven by some objective method.
So if I say the old masters made better art than the impressionist, that is subjective as there are no way to measure the statement. It is my opinion. Or I might say apples taste better than Brussels sprouts (Which I would say not as I like them both). Well, again that is an opinion, mine against yours. And no matter how many agree. It is still not an objective fact.
Fact Vs Opinion
Many times we create confusion when we add out own opinions to facts and come up with wrong conclusion.
E.g:-
- Fact:- Two people are whispering when you walk up.Suddenly they stop.
Opinion:- They must be gossiping about me. - Fact:- Someone has reported about you to the authorities
Opinion:- They will blacklisted you. You are now ruined and finished.
Many time we tend to behave negatively due to our own adverse opinions. We feel people are per se are hostile and not friendly. We become anxious and fearful for no good reason in situation which is relatively safe.
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